Sources
Our book is packed full of facts and figures. Plastic is a wide-ranging and complex topic. It is the subject of much research, investigations, scholarly studies, and reports. Yet despite this, we still couldn’t always get our hands on all the figures we needed. The plastic problem is far from being fully researched, and we have only used sources we trust, which are listed here. All webpages were most recently accessed in April 2021.
Figures from different sources occasionally contradict each other. There may be many reasons for this. Not all countries collect plastic data in the same way. Different research projects look at one issue from different angles. In some places, we decided to use only figures from Germany, as it’s easier to find specific figures from a single country. In Germany, there are many research projects and scientifically-founded figures relating to plastic. The main office of the Heinrich Böll Foundation is in Germany, and as a wealthy industrial nation that produces a great deal of plastic waste, we have a special responsibility to reflect on this topic. The figures, in any case, are always to be understood as illustrative, and therefore indicative of many other countries. More information on our sources and links to documents available online can be found here.
HOW MUCH PLASTIC IS IN OUR CLOTHES?
Greenpeace: Fast Fashion, Fatal Fibres, 2017
Textile World: Man-Made Fibers Continue To Grow, February 2015
Geyer, R.; Jambeck, J.; Law, K.: Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Science Advances, July 2017, Supplementary Material, table S5
Data for 2019: Roland Geyer
Changing Markets Foundation: Fossil Fashion: The hidden reliance of fast fashion on fossil fuels, February 2021
WHAT DOES PLASTIC DO TO MARINE LIFE?
Kühn, S.; van Franeker, J.: Quantitative overview of marine debris ingested by marine megafauna. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 151, 2020
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA): Presence of microplastics and nanoplastics in food, with particular focus on seafood. EFSA Journal, Vol. 14, Issue 6, June 2016
DOES PLASTIC ALSO KILL LAND ANIMALS?
Eriksen, M. et al.: The plight of camels eating plastic waste. Journal of Arid Environments, 185, 2021
Jones, A.: Plastic waste forms huge, deadly masses in camel guts. Science News, December 2020
HOW MUCH PLASTIC HAS BEEN PRODUCED?
Geyer, R.; Jambeck, J.; Law, K.: Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Science Advances, July 2017, Supplementary Material
Data for 2019: Roland Geyer
Elhacham, E. et al.: Global human-made mass exceeds all living biomass. Nature, Vol 588, December 2020, pp. 442-444
WHAT IS PLASTIC?
Interview with Dr. Jane Muncke, Food Packaging Forum
WHAT ARE THE MAIN TYPES OF PLASTIC?
Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung Berlin: Plastic Atlas, 2019, p. 11
Geyer, R.; Jambeck, J.; Law, K.: Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Science Advances, July 2017, Supplementary Material, fig. S2
Data for 2019: Roland Geyer
Plastics Europe: Types of Plastics
HOW DO POLYMERS DIFFER?
European Commission: Scientific and technical support for the development of criteria to identify and group polymers for registration/evaluation under REACH and their impact assessment
Interview with Dr. Jane Muncke, Food Packaging Forum
WHAT ARE ADDITIVES?
Interview with Dr. Jane Muncke, Food Packaging Forum
WHY IS PLASTIC SO DANGEROUS?
Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL): Plastic & Health: The Hidden Costs of a Plastic Planet, 2019
Lockwood, D.: Ocean plastics soak up pollutants, Chemical & Engineering News, August 2012
WHERE IS THE PLASTIC IN COSMETICS?
Plastic Soup Foundation: Beat the micro bead, Guide to Microplastics, 2021
CAN PLASTIC MAKE ME SICK?
Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung Berlin: Plastic Atlas, 2019, pp. 16/17
Health and Environment Alliance (HEAL): Infographic: Low Doses Matter, 13 March, 2019
HOW CAN I KNOW WHAT’S IN IT?
CHEMTrust: From BPA to BPZ: a toxic soup? March 2018
WHAT DOES PLASTIC DO TO YOUR DRINK?
Westerhoff, P. et al.: Antimony leaching from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic used for bottled drinking water. Water Research, 42(3), 2008, pp. 551-556
Tyree, C.; Morrison, D.: Invisibles – The plastic inside us. Orb Media, 2017
Mason, S. et al.: Synthetic polymer contamination in bottled water, State University of New York at Fredonia, 2018, p. 15
HOW DOES PLASTIC AFFECT HYGIENE?
Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung Berlin: Plastic Atlas, 2019, pp. 18/19
Women’s Environmental Network: Report: Seeing Red, Menstruation and the environment, 2018, p. 3
City to Sea: Plastic-free periods
WHAT IS PLASTIC USED FOR?
Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung Berlin: Plastic Atlas, 2019, p. 15
Geyer, R.; Jambeck, J.; Law, K.: Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Science Advances, July 2017, Supplementary Material, fig. S1
Data for 2019: Roland Geyer
HOW MANY TIMES CAN WE WRAP THE EARTH?
Oceana: Amazon’s Plastic Problem Revealed, December 2020, p. 4
Amazon disputes the numbers of this study
HOW ARE PET BOTTLES MADE?
Interview with Dr. Jane Muncke, Food Packaging Forum
Statista: Production of polyethylene terephthalate bottles worldwide from 2004 to 2021, January 2021
Scarr, S.; Hernandez, M.: Drowning in plastic, Reuters Graphics, September 2019
HOW MUCH PLASTIC DOES THE WORLD MAKE?
PlasticsEurope: Plastics – The Facts 2020, p. 17
Statista: Distribution of the global population 2020, by continent
WHAT LINKS PROSPERITY & PLASTIC WASTE?
Law, K. et al.: The United States’ contribution of plastic waste to land and ocean. Science Advances, Vol. 6, no. 44, October 2020
Kaza, S. et al.: What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050, Washington DC: World Bank, 2018, p. 7, Map 1.1.
In 2019 Argentina was classified as upper middle income country.
HOW DOES PLASTIC AFFECT PEOPLE?
Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung Berlin: Plastic Atlas, 2019, pp. 18/19
UNEP: Neglected: Environmental Justice Impacts of Plastic Pollution, March 2021
HOW MUCH PLASTIC ENDS UP AS WASTE?
Geyer, R.; Jambeck, J.; Law, K.: Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Science Advances, July 2017, Supplementary Material
Data for 2019: Roland Geyer
WHAT REMAINS AFTER INCINERATION?
European Environmental Bureau (EEB): Factsheet on incineration and landfill, 2017
GAIA: Plastic Pollution and Waste Incineration, 2019
GAIA: Waste Incineration: Pollution and Health Impacts, 2019
WHERE DOES GERMAN WASTE GO?
Trademap.org: List of importing markets for the product exported by Germany in 2019, Product: 3915 Waste, parings and scrap, of plastics, 25 March, 2021
WHO EXPORTS WASTE TO MALAYSIA?
Trademap.org: List of supplying markets for the product imported by Malaysia in 2019, Product: 3915 Waste, parings and scrap, of plastics, 25 March, 2021
HOW DO ZERO-WASTE CITIES WORK?
Break Free From Plastic: Zero Waste Cities of Southeast Asia, 11 February, 2021
HOW DOES PET RECYCLING WORK?
Deutsche Umwelthilfe: Press statement by Forum PET on the use of recyclate in single-use plastic bottles in Germany, November 2020
Ellen McArthur Foundation: A New Textiles Economy: Redesigning Fashion’s Future, Circular Fibres Initiative, 2017
WHAT PREVENTS RECYCLING?
Zero Waste Europe: Recycling of multilayer composite packaging: the beverage carton, December 2020
Deutsche Umwelthilfe: Das Märchen vom umweltfreundlichen Getränkekarton, Mythenpapier, November 2014
Lichtnegger, S.: Aluminiumverbunde – Wieviel, Worin, Wohin? Eine Abschätzung des Aufkommens und Rückgewinnungspotenzials von Aluminium in Verbundverpackungen in Österreich. Diplomarbeit / Masterarbeit – Institut für Verfahrens- und Energietechnik (IVET), BOKU-Universität für Bodenkultur, August 2017
HOW MUCH PLASTIC CAN A FESTIVAL AVOID?
I Land Sound Festival, Estland | Let’s Do It Foundation
HOW LONG HAS PLASTIC BEEN AROUND?
Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung Berlin: Plastic Atlas, 2019, pp. 10/11
Braun, D.: Kleine Geschichte der Kunststoffe, Hanser, München 2017
Falbe, J.; Regitz, M. (Hrsg.): Römpp Lexikon Chemie, Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart 1999
HOW LONG IS PLASTIC USED?
Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung Berlin: Plastic Atlas, 2019, p. 15
Geyer, R.; Jambeck, J.; Law, K.: Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Science Advances, July 2017, Supplementary Material, table S4
HOW MUCH PLASTIC IS THERE IN THE OCEAN?
Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung Berlin: Plastic Atlas, 2019, p. 29
GRID Arendal: How much plastic is estimated in the ocean and where it may be, 2018
WHERE IS THE OCEAN TRASH?
Eriksen, M. et al.: Plastic Pollution in the World’s Oceans: More than 5 Trillion Plastic Pieces Weighing over 250,000 Tons Afloat at Sea. PLoS ONE 9(12), 2014
Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung Berlin: Plastic Atlas, 2019, p. 29
Lebreton, L. et al.: Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic. Sci Rep 8, 4666, March 2018, fig. 3
WHERE DOES OCEAN TRASH COME FROM?
ARCADIS: Pilot project: 4 Seas – plastic recycling cycle and marine environment impact. Case study on the plastic cycle and its loopholes in the four European regional seas areas, European Commission, January 2012, p. 56
HOW DOES PLASTIC THREATEN SEABIRDS?
Kühn, S. et al.: Polymer types ingested by northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) and southern hemisphere relatives. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28, 2021
OSPAR Commission, OSPAR Assessment Portal: Plastic particles in fulmar stomachs in the North Sea, 2021
WHERE DOES MICROPLASTIC COME FROM?
Bertling, J. et al.: Kompendium zu Kunststoffen in der Umwelt, First edition 2021
Bertling, J. et al.: Kunststoffe in der Umwelt: Mikro- und Makroplastik. Ursachen, Mengen, Umweltschicksale, Wirkungen, Lösungsansätze, Empfehlungen. Kurzfassung der Konsortialstudie, Fraunhofer-Institut für Umwelt-, Sicherheits- und Energietechnik UMSICHT (eds.), June 2018, pp.10/11
Science Learning Lab: How harmful are microplastics?
Plastic Soup Foundation: Beat the microbead
WHERE DOES PLASTIC IN SOIL COME FROM?
Umweltbundesamt: Kunststoffe in Böden, December 2020
Büks, F.; Kaupenjohann, M.: Global concentrations of microplastic in soils, a review, 2020
Guo, J. et al.: Source, migration and toxicology of microplastics in soil, Environment International, Vol. 137, April 2020
HOW DOES PLASTIC GET INTO THE SOIL?
Umweltbundesamt: Kunststoffe in Böden, December 2020
Guo, J. et al.: Source, migration and toxicology of microplastics in soil, Environment International, Vol. 137, April 2020
HOW MUCH PLASTIC DO I EAT?
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF): No plastics in nature: Assessing plastic ingestion from nature to people, 2019, p. 4
Reuters Graphics: A Plateful of Plastic, December 2019
Ragusa, A. et al.: Plasticenta: First Evidence of microplastics in human placenta. Environment International, Vol. 146, January 2021
Pauly, J. et al.: Inhaled celluslosic and plastic fibers found in human lung tissue. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev., 7(5), May 1998, pp. 419-428
DOES »BIO«DEGRADABLE PLASTIC EXIST?
Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung Berlin: Plastic Atlas, 2019, pp. 34/35
Zimmermann, L. et al.: Are bioplastics and plant-based materials safer than conventional plastics? In vitro toxicity and chemical composition. Environment International, 2020
Zhongnan Jia, M.: Biodegradable Plastics: Breaking Down the Facts, Greenpeace, December 2020
Rethink Plastic: Why bioplastics won’t solve plastic pollution, July 2018
WHAT ABOUT »BIO«-BASED PLASTIC?
Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung Berlin: Plastic Atlas, 2019, pp. 34/35
Zimmermann, L. et al.: Are bioplastics and plant-based materials safer than conventional plastics? In vitro toxicity and chemical composition. Environment International, 2020
Zhongnan Jia, M.: Biodegradable Plastics: Breaking Down the Facts, Greenpeace, December 2020
Rethink Plastic: Why bioplastics won’t solve plastic pollution, July 2018
WHO’S RESPONSIBLE FOR PLASTIC WASTE?
Break Free From Plastic: Branded – Demanding corporate responsibility for plastic pollution, Vol.3, 2020
HOW DO I DO A BRAND AUDIT?
Break Free From Plastic
Tutorial
WHO PROFITS FROM PLASTIC?
Polymer Properties Database. Crow’s Top 10 Plastics and Resins Manufacturers, 2020
WHAT IS FRACKING?
Interview with Andy Gheorghiu, campaigner & consultant for climate/environmental protection, energy policy & further development of democratic processes | Frack free rocks: Fracking explained
WHAT DOES PLASTIC DO TO OUR CLIMATE?
Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL): Plastic & Climate: The Hidden Costs of a Plastic Planet, p. 3, 2019
Umweltbundesamt: Entwicklung der Treibhausgasemissionen in Deutschland, Abb. 1 Entwicklung der Treibhausgasemissionen in Deutschland in der Abgrenzung der Sektoren des Klimaschutzgesetzes, 2019
WHAT ARE GOVERNMENTS DOING?
Rethink Plastic
PRI (Prinicples for Responsible Investment), UNEP Finance Initiative, United Nations Global Compact: The Plastics Landscape: Regulations, Policies, and Influencers, 2019
Global Legislative Toolkit
WHY DO WE NEED A PLASTIC TREATY?
Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL), Progress on Plastics Update Issue 14: February 2021
LIVING WITH A PLASTIC FACTORY?
Lerner, S.: The Plant Next Door, The Intercept, 2019
Lartey, J., Laughland, O.: Cancer Town, The Guardian, Special report, 2019
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): National Air Toxics Assessment, 2011 NATA: Assessment Results, 2015
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Third Party Correspondence (RFR 17002A): Waiting to Die: Toxic Emissions and Disease Near the Louisiana Denka/DuPont Plant, received July 2019
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): National Air Toxics Assessment, 2014 NATA: Assessment Results, 2018
CAN WE HAVE A PLASTIC-FREE CAMPUS?
Plastic Free Campus
Break Free From Plastic: Plastic-free Campus Campaign